Forty-seven years ago this week, USAF’s Space and Missile Systems Organization (SAMSO) successfully orbited an octet of satellites on the first mission of the Initial Defense Communication Satellite Program (IDCSP). This feat marked the beginning of America’s first operational geosynchronous orbital communications system.
The Initial Defense Communications Satellite Program (IDCSP) was the world’s first military satellite communications system. It consisted of clusters of small, polygonal satellites deployed in near-geosynchronous earth orbit. IDCSP satellites transmitted both voice and photographic data vital to U.S. military commanders.
Each IDCSP satellite external configuration was a 26 sided polygon measuring 34-inches in diameter. With a mass of roughly 100 lbs, the communication satellite was spin-stabilized and its external surface was almost completely covered with solar cells. With the onus on simplicity, the type employed neither internal storage batteries nor an active attitude control system.
During a typical IDCSP mission, up to eight (8) satellites were placed into near-geosynchronous earth orbit by a single launch vehicle. Each satellite was dispensed individually. Since their orbits were not quite synchronous, IDCSP satellites drifted west to east up to 30 degrees per day. This feature helped ensure that at least one satellite was always visible to a ground station in the event that an adjacent IDCSP satellite became non-op.
On Thursday, 16 June 16 1966, an USAF Titan IIIC launch vehicle lifted-off from Cape Canaveral’s LC-41 at 1400 UTC. The multi-staged booster successfully placed seven (7) IDCSP satellites and a single gravity-gradient experimental satellite into equatorial orbit at an altitude of approximately 18,354 nm. Each of the constituent satellites functioned well and successfully passed a series of on-orbit preliminary tests. The IDCSP system then declared “operational” in short order.
Between June of 1966 and June of 1968, a total of twenty-six (26) IDCSP satellites were orbited by USAF Titan IIIC launch vehicles. A quartet of launches was required to accomplish such. While the IDCSP system was experimental in nature, it in fact provided the United States with a viable space-based, global communication network for over a decade.
IDCSP satellites transmitted reconn photographs and other intelligence data throughout the Vietnam War. At the point of IDCSP initial operating capability (IOC), the system was redesignated as the Defense Satellite Communications System I (DSCS I). Enhanced-capability variants, DSCS II and DSCS III, came in succeeding years (the later serving into the 21st century).
Forty-eight years ago this month, Astronaut Edward H. White II became the first American to perform what in NASA parlance is referred to as an Extra Vehicular Activity (EVA). In everyday terms; a space walk.
White, Mission Commander James A. McDivitt and their Gemini IV spacecraft were launched into low Earth orbit by a two-stage Titan II launch vehicle from LC-19 at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Florida. The mission clock started at 15:15:59 UTC on Thursday, 03 June 1965.
On the third orbit, less than five hours after launch, White opened the Gemini IV starboard hatch. He stood in his seat and mounted a camera to capture his historic space stroll. He then cast-off from Gemini IV and became a human satellite.
White was tethered to Gemini IV via a 15-foot umbilical that provided oxygen and communications to his EVA suit. A gold-plated visor on his helmet protected his eyes from the searing glare of the sun. The space-walking astronaut was also outfitted with a hand-held maneuvering unit that used compressed oxygen to power its small thrusters. And, like any good tourist, he also took along a camera.
Ed White had the time of his all-too-brief life in the 22 minutes that he walked in space. The sight of the earth, the spacecraft, the sun, the vastness of space, the freedom of movement all combined to make him exclaim at one point, “I feel like a million dollars!”.
Presently, it was time to get back into the spacecraft. But, couldn’t he just stay outside a little longer? NASA Mission Control and Commander McDivitt were firm. It was time to get back in; now! He grudgingly complied with the request/order, plaintively saying: “It’s the saddest moment of my life!”
As Ed White got back into his seat, he and McDivitt struggled to lock the starboard hatch. Both men were exhausted, but ebullient as they mused about the successful completion of America’s first space walk.
Gemini IV would eventually orbit the Earth 62 times before splashing-down in the Atlantic Ocean at 17:12:11 GMT on Sunday, 07 June 1965. The 4-day mission was another milestone in America’s quest for the moon.
The mission was over and yet Ed White was still a little tired. But then, that was really quite easy to understand. In the time that he was working outside the spacecraft, Gemini IV had traveled almost a third of the way around the Earth.
Now, that’s a long walk!
Fifty-six years ago this month, USAF Captain Joseph W. Kittinger successfully completed the first Manhigh aero medical research balloon mission. During his 6.5-hour flight, Kittinger reached an altitude of 95,200 feet above mean sea level.
Project Manhigh was a United States Air Force biomedical research program that investigated the human factors of spaceflight by taking men into a near-space environment. Preparations for the trio of Manhigh flights began in 1955. The experience and data gleaned from Manhigh were instrumental to the success of the nation’s early manned spaceflight effort.
The Manhigh target altitude was approximately 100,000 feet above sea level. A helium-filled polyethylene balloon, just 0.0015-inches thick and inflatable to a maximum volume of over 3-million cubic feet, carried the Manhigh gondola into the stratosphere. At float altitude, this balloon expanded to a diameter of about 200 feet.
The Manhigh gondola was a hemispherically-capped cylinder that measured 3-feet in diameter and 8-feet in length. It was attached to the transporting balloon via a 40-foot diameter recovery parachute. Although compact, the gondola was amply provisioned with the necessities of flight including life support, power and communication systems. It also included expendable ballast for use in controlling the altitude of the Manhigh balloon.
The Manhigh test pilot wore a T-1 partial pressure suit during the Manhigh mission. This would protect him in the event that the gondola cabin lost pressure at extreme altitude. The pilot was hooked-up to a variety of sensors which transmitted his biomedical information to the ground throughout the flight. This allowed medicos on the ground to keep a constant tab on the pilot’s physical status.
The flight of Manhigh I took place on Sunday, 02 June 1957 with USAF Captain Joseph W. Kittinger as pilot. The massive balloon carrying Kittinger and his gondola was released at 11:23 UTC from Fleming Field Airport, South Saint Paul, Minnesota. In less than 2 hours, Kittinger’s balloon reached its design float altitude of 95,200 feet.
Radio communication problems complicated the Manhigh I mission. While Kittinger could hear the ground, the ground could not hear him. However, the resourceful pilot managed to work around this issue by communicating with the ground via Morse code.
Though balloon, gondola and pilot were functioning quite well, the Manhigh I mission had to be cut short due to rapid depletion of the gondala’s oxygen supply. Post-flight investigation revealed that this anomaly was caused by accidental crossing of the oxygen supply and vent lines prior to the flight.
Kittinger made a safe and uneventful landing near Indian Creek, Minnesota; located roughly 60 nm southeast of the launch site. The recovery crew was quick to the scene and extracted the plucky pilot from the sealed balloon gondola which had fallen over on its side. The official mission elapsed time was 6 hours and 32 minutes.
The flight of Manhigh I was a significant technical accomplishment that materially contributed to the advancement of manned spaceflight. Indeed, a TIME Magazine article, entitled “Prelude to Space” and dated 17 June 1957, captured the essence of the achievement. A man had been subjected to space-equivalent physiological conditions for a protracted period, had functioned well in that environment, and then returned safely to earth without ill effect.
For his significant efforts during the Manhigh I mission, Captain Joseph W. Kittinger received the USAF Distinguished Flying Cross.
Fifty-seven years ago this week, the United States Navy successfully conducted the first flight test of the Chance Vought Regulus II cruise missile. This initial test departed from and recovered to Rogers Dry Lake at Edwards Air Force Base, California.
The Regulus II was designed as the supersonic follow-on to the Navy’s Regulus I ship-launched cruise missile. Utilizing an inertial reference system, the Regulus II was autonomously guided to the target. This represented a great improvement over Regulus I which employed a more primitive radio command guidance system.
Like its Regulus I forebear, Regulus II featured an airplane-like external airframe configuration and cruised under turbojet power. The vehicle was rocket-launched to the turbojet takeover speed (300 knots) using the Zero-Length Launch (ZLL) concept. The single rocket booster generated 115,000 lbs of thrust for 4 seconds and was jettisoned following burnout.
The Regulus II missile engineering and development effort saw the missile built in three (3) airframe blocks. The flight test version was designated as XRSSM-N-9 and included seven (7) airframes (GM-2001 to GM-2007). The fleet training variant was designated as XRSSM-N-9A, of which twenty-nine (29) were built (GM-2008 to GM-2036).
The Regulus II tactical missile, designated XSSM-N-9, included thirty-eight (38) airframes (GM-3001 to GM-3038). It measured 67 feet in length and featured a wingspan of 20.75 feet. Gross Take-Off Weight (GTOW) and empty weight were 21,300 lbs and 11,690 lbs, respectively. Power was provided by a General Electric J79 afterburing turbojet.
As originally designed, Regulus II was intended to cruise 1,000 nm at Mach 0.94 and an altitude of 32,000 feet. This range fell to 600 nm at a cruise altitude of 5,000 feet. For a supersonic cruise at Mach 2 and 65,000 feet, the vehicle had design range of 635 nm.
Initial flight testing of the Regulus II missile did not use the rocket booster. Rather, the vehicle became airborne via a normal runway take-off. The missile was remotely controlled by a pilot flying alongside in a two-place control aircraft. In this case, the aircraft was a TV-2D; a modified version of the Lockheed T-33. The front-seater flew the Regulus II while the back-seater flew the control airplane. Chase support was provided by Douglas F4D Skyray and Vought F8U Crusader aircraft.
Airframe GM-2001 made the first test flight of a Regulus II vehicle at Edwards Air Force Base, California on Tuesday, 29 May 1956. The first XRSSM-N-9 departed Rogers Dry Lake at 14:11 UTC following a take-off roll of slightly over 12,000 feet. The missile quickly accelerated to 356 knots as it climbed to an altitude of nearly 11,000 feet. Amazingly, all major missile systems performed nominally during the nearly 33-minute test hop and GM-2001 landed safely back on the dry lake bed.
The Navy would go on to conduct forty-seven (47) more Regulus II flight tests through November 1958. These tests were successful in the main and the Regulus II system performed well overall. However, the emergence of the contemporaneous and superior UGM-27 Polaris Submarine-Launched Ballistic Missile (SLBM) rendered the Regulus II missile obsolete. As a result, the Navy cancelled the Regulus II Program in December 1958.
Forty-eight years ago this month, the USAF/Lockheed YF-12A set a bevy of world speed and altitude peformance records. A pair of aircraft and a team of five USAF aircrew flew these missions which originated out of Edwards Air Force Base, California.
The YF-12A was the interceptor variant of the vaunted Lockheed A-12 Mach 3+ aircraft. Armed with a quartet of Hughes AIM-47A air-to-air missiles, the YF-12A’s mission would be to intercept and destroy incoming Soviet bombers. Lockheed proposed the A-12 variant as a cost-effective replacement for the defunct North American XF-108 Rapier.
The YF-12A differed from the A-12 in that a second crew station was added for the AIM-47A Weapons Systems Officer (WSO). The WSO operated the powerful Hughes AN/ASG-18 fire control radar which had a range on the order of 500 miles. The YF-12A’s forebody chines were truncated back of the axisymmetric nose to accommodate the radar system. Infrared (IR) sensors were installed on the leading edges of the shortened chines.
The Hughes AIM-47A missile measured 12.5 feet in length and 13.5 inches in diameter. Maximum range of the 800-pound missile was in excess of 100 miles. While the type’s intended maximum Mach number was 6, propulsion system development problems limited the demonstrated maximum Mach number to 4. About eighty (80) AIM-47A missiles were produced. Seven (7) of these rounds were test fired in flight. All but one (1) was successful.
Lockheed converted a trio of A-12 aircraft to the YF-12A configuration. The YF-12A aircraft were assigned serial numbers 60-6934 (Ship 1), 60-6935 (Ship 2) and 60-6936 (Ship 3). Ship 1 made the maiden YF-12A flight from Groom Lake, Nevada on Wednesday, 07 August 1963 with James D. Eastham at the controls.
On Saturday, 01 May 1965, YF-12A aircraft 60-6934 and 60-6936 were flown by a quintet of USAF aircrew in an impressive demonstration of the interceptor’s altitude and speed performance. These missions were conducted by the Air Force Flight Test Center (AFFTC) at Edwards Air Force Base, California. Specifically, the following FAI-certified Class C Group III absolute performance records were established on that day:
Sustained Altitude (Absolute): 80,258 feet
Aircraft: YF-12A, Ship 1 (Serial Number 60-6934)
Aircrew: Col Robert L. Stephens/Lt Col Daniel Andre
15/25 km Closed-Circuit (Absolute): 2,070.102 mph
Aircraft: YF-12A, Ship 3 (Serial Number 60-6936)
Aircrew: Col Robert L. Stephens/Lt Col Daniel Andre
500 km Closed-Circuit (Class C): 1,643.042 mph
Aircraft: YF-12A, Ship 3 (Serial Number 60-6936)
Aircrew: Maj Walter F. Daniel/Maj Noel T. Warner
1,000 km Closed-Circuit, No Payload: 1,688.891 mph
Aircraft: YF-12A, Ship 3 (Serial Number 60-6936)
Aircrew: Maj Walter F. Daniel/Capt James P. Cooney
1,000 km Closed-Circuit, 1,000 kg Load (Absolute): 1,688.891 mph
Aircraft: YF-12A, Ship 3 (Serial Number 60-6936)
Aircrew: Maj Walter F. Daniel/Capt James P. Cooney
1,000 km Closed-Circuit, 2,000 kg Load (Class C): 1,688.891 mph
Aircraft: YF-12A, Ship 3 (Serial Number 60-6936)
Aircrew: Maj Walter F. Daniel/Capt James P. Cooney
USAF liked the YF-12A’s demonstrated performance capabilities. Thus, on Friday, 14 May 1965, the service ordered ninety-three (93) units of the production YF-12A aircraft known as the F-12B. Congress approved the order and allotted $90M to get production going. Unfortunately, United States Secretary of Defense Robert S. McNamara nixed the deal and cancelled the production of the F-12B.
Following the F-12B cancellation, YF-12A flight testing by USAF continued through 1969. One aircraft was lost along the way. On Thursday, 14 August 1966, Ship 1 was severely damaged in a landing incident at Edwards AFB and never flew again. Fortunately, the crew escaped with their lives.
In December of 1969, NASA initiated a flight research effort using YF-12A Ship 2 and Ship 3. Over the next ten (10) years a wealth of aerodynamic, aero heating, structural and propulsion flight research data were acquired using these unique high-speed assets. A great benefit in this regard was the type’s ability to sustain Mach 3+ flight conditions for periods up to 15 minutes per mission.
YF-12A Ship 3 was lost on Thursday, 24 June 1971 when an inflight fire started due to a failed fuel line in the right-hand J58 turbo-ramjet engine. The USAF crew of pilot Lt Col Ronald J. Layton and WSO Maj William A. Curtis attempted to recover the aircraft to Edwards AFB. However, the fire quickly spread and forced the crew to abandon the aircraft. They ejected safely and survived. Ship 3 was making its 67th flight of the NASA YF-12A flight research effort at the time of its demise.
Following Ship 3′s loss, Ship 2 flew the remainder of the NASA YF-12A high-speed flight research program. It registered a total of 146 missions in that capacity. On Wednesday, 07 November 1979, YF-12A Ship 2 departed Edwards AFB for its final destination; the USAF Musuem at Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio. The USAF crew consisted of pilot Col James V. Sullivan and USAF Museum Director Richard Uppstrom as the guy in back (GIB).
The only YF-12A aircraft to survive the USAF and NASA flight programs was Ship 2. That aircraft (60-6935) is currently on display in the Research and Development Gallery at the United States Air Force National Museum in Dayton, Ohio. Also displayed there is the 1965 Thompson Trophy that was awarded to Col Robert L. Stephens and Lt Col Daniel Andre for their record-setting YF-12A flight of 2,070.102 mph.
Forty-nine years ago today, NASA successfully tested the Apollo Launch Escape System (LES) during a simulated abort of a boilerplate Apollo Command Module (CM). The mission was the second of six test shots aimed at demonstrating that the LES could safely abort the CM under critical ascent flight conditions.
The Apollo Launch Escape System (LES) was designed to provide a positive means of crew esacpe in the event of booster failure during the early stages of ascent. The LES incorporated a trio of solid rocket motors: the launch-escape motor, the tower-jettison motor, and the pitch-control motor. The primary and largest rocket motor of the three was the launch-escape motor which generated 155,000 lbs of thrust.
NASA’s Little Joe flight test program involved the abort testing of boilerplate Apollo Command Modules using Little Joe II launch vehicles. The purpose of the subject test series was to examine the performance of the Apollo CM and LES under highly stressing flight conditions. The Little Joe flights were flown out of White Sands Missile Range (WSMR) between November 1963 and January 1966.
The Apollo Little Joe flight test series consisted of a pair of Pad Abort (PA) tests and a quartet of ascent abort (AA) tests. Each PA mission involved flying a LES-CM combination to simulate an on-the-pad abort. Such would be the case, for instance, should a Saturn launch vehicle explode on the launch pad. The AA missions utilized Little Joe II launch vehicles to test the LES-CM at critical abort mode flight conditions.
Designated Abort Missions A-001 through A-004, the AA flight tests examined performance of the LES and CM under the following abort flight conditions: Transonic Abort (A-001), Maximum Dynamic Pressure Abort (A-002), Low-Altitude Abort (A-003) and Power-on Tumbling Boundary Abort (A-004).
The first of the AA missions (A-001) was launched from White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico at 12:59:59 UTC on Wednesday, 13 May 1964. At an altitude of 15,400 feet during the ascent, the Little Joe II was intentionally self-destructed. The LES fired as designed and propelled the Apollo CM boilerplate to 29,772 feet. At this point, the 3-phase (drogue, pilot and main) parachute recovery system deployed and soft-landed the CM at a sink rate of 26 feet/second. Total flight time from ignition to touchdown was 350 seconds.
Mission A-001 was entirely successful. The LES worked as advertised and the boilerplate Apollo CM test article survived the transonic abort test in good shape. The only anomaly noted was the collapse of one of the three main parachutes due to a broken riser. Since the Apollo CM was designed to land safely on only two main parachutes, the collapsed parachute anomaly was not considered an issue.
History records that the A-002, A-003 and A-004 abort missions were subsequently and successfully flown in December 1964, May 1965 and January 1966, respectively. Along with A-001, these missions helped qualify the Apollo LES and the CM earth landing system for manned missions. Post-flight analyses revealed that had these abort tests had been manned, the flight crew would have landed safely in all cases.
Forty-five years ago today, NASA Astronaut Neil A. Armstrong narrowly escaped with his life when he was forced to eject from the Lunar Landing Research Vehicle in which he was training. Armstrong punched-out only 200 feet above ground level and spent just 4 seconds in the silk before safely landing.
The Lunar Module (LM) was the vehicle used by Apollo astronauts to land on and depart from the lunar surface. This unique spacecraft consisted of separate descent and ascent rocket-powered stages. The powered descent phase was initiated at 50,000 feet AGL and continued all the way to landing. The powered ascent phase lasted from lunar lift-off to 60,000 feet AGL.
It was recognized early in the Apollo Program that landing a spacecraft on the lunar surface under vacuum conditions would be very challenging to say the least. To maximize their chances for doing so safely, Apollo astronauts would need piloting practice prior to a lunar landing mission. And they would need an earth-bound vehicle that flew like the LM to get that practice.
The Lunar Landing Research Vehicle (LLRV) was the answer to the above. The LLRV employed a turbojet engine that provided vertical thrust to cancel five-sixths of its weight since the gravity on the Moon is one-sixth that of Earth. The vehicle was also configured with dual lift rockets to provide vertical and horizontal motion. LLRV 3-axis attitude control was provided by a series of 16 small thrusters.
The LLRV was described by one historical NASA document as being “unconventional, contrary and ugly”. Known as the “Flying Bedstead”, the LLRV was designed for the specific purpose of simulating LM flight during the terminal phase of a lunar landing. The LLRV was not easy to fly in the “low and slow” flight regime in which it operated. The type was not eye-pleasing in the least.
A pair of LLRV’s were constructed by Bell Aerosystems and flight tested at what is now the NASA Dryden Flight Research Center starting in October 1964. These vehicles were subsequently shipped to Ellington Air Force Base in Texas by early 1967. A number of flight crew, including Neil Armstrong, began LLRV flight training shortly thereafter.
Neil Armstrong made his first LLRV flight on Monday, 27 March 1967 in LLRV No. 1. (This occurred two months after the horrific Apollo 1 Fire.) Armstrong continued flight training in the LLRV over the next year in preparation for what would ultimately be the first manned lunar landing attempt in July of 1969
On Monday, 06 May 1968, Armstrong was flying LLRV No. 1 when the vehicle began losing altitude as its lift rockets lost thrust. Using turbojet power, Armstrong was able to get the LLRV to climb. As he did so, the vehicle made an uncommanded pitch-up and roll over. The attitude control system was unresponsive. The pilot had no choice but to eject.
Neil Armstrong ejected from the LLRV at 200 feet AGL as LLRV No. 1 crashed to destruction. The pilot was subjected to an acceleration of 14 G’s as his rocket-powered, vertically-seeking ejection seat functioned as designed. Armstrong got a full chute, but made only a few swings in same before safely touching-down back on terra firma. His only injury was to his tongue, which he accidently bit at the moment of ejection seat rocket motor ignition.
A mishap investigation board attributed the LLRV mishap to a design deficiency that allowed the helium gas pressurant of the lift rocket and attitude control system fuel tanks to be be accidently depleted. Thus, propellants could not be delivered to the lift rockets and attitude control system thrusters.
Neil Armstrong and indeed all of the Apollo astronauts who landed on the Moon trained in improved variants of the LLRV known as the Lunar Landing Training Vehicle (LLTV). This training was absolutely crucial to the success of the half-dozen Apollo crews who landed on the Moon. Indeed, there was no other way to adequately simulate moon landings except by flying the LLTV.
Fifty-two years ago this month, NASA launched Mercury-Atlas 3 (MA-3). While technically a flight test failure, the mission had the unexpected consequence of successfully demonstrating the Mercury spacecraft abort system under realistic emergency flight conditions.
Project Mercury was America’s first manned spaceflight program. Led by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), the basic goals of Project Mercury were simple: (1) Orbit a manned spacecraft around the Earth, (2) investigate man’s ability to function in space and (3) recover both man and spacecraft safely.
The guidelines for achieving the above were equally straightforward: (1) Use existing technology and equipment wherever practical, (2) employ the most simple and reliable approach to system design, (3) place the spacecraft into orbit using an existing booster and (4) conduct a progressive and logical test program.
Project Mercury utilized a pair of existing military boosters converted for the manned flight role. The Redstone Intermediate Range Ballistic Missile (IRBM) was used for suborbital missions. Orbital missions were flown using the more powerful Atlas Intercontinental Ballistic Missile (ICBM). Both spacecraft-booster versions were tested a number of times prior to lofting men in to space.
The first suborbital flight test of the Mercury-Atlas combination, Mercury-Atlas 1 (MA-1), was conducted in July of 1960. Unfortunately, the booster structurally failed and exploded about a minute into flight. A second attempt at flying a Mercury-Atlas suborbital mission followed in February of 1961. Things worked out much better this time around as Mercury-Atlas 2 (MA-2) successfully met all test objectives.
The next step in the Mercury-Atlas test series was to attempt at a single orbit mission. This was the primary objective of Mercury-Atlas 3 (MA-3). The subject Mercury spacecraft carried an astronaut simulator intended to mimic the inhalation and exhalation of gas, heat and water vapor characteristics of a man.
On Tuesday, 25 April 1961, Mercury-Atlas 3 lifted-off from Cape Canaveral’s LC-14 at 16:15 UTC. As the vehicle thundered away from the launch pad, all systems functioned as planned. However, the Range Safety Officer (RSO) terminated the mission 43.3 seconds after lift-off as the Atlas launch vehicle began to stray from the intended flight trajectory. The launch vehicle’s autopilot had failed.
Interestingly, the Mercury spacecraft’s abort sensing system and rocket escape system worked exactly as designed. The Mercury spacecraft was safely rocketed away from the exploding booster and lofted to an altitude of 24,000 feet. The parachute recovery system deployed successfully and gently deposited the spacecraft about 4 nm downrange of the launch site. All of this in what was a true in-flight emergency. Had an astronaut been onboard, he would have survived the destruction of the booster.
As a footnote to this story, the Mercury spacecraft flown on MA-3 was found to be in such good condition that it was used for the very next Mercury-Atlas orbital attempt. Happily, that mission, Mercury-Atlas 4 (MA-4) successfully achieved earth orbit and met all flight objectives in September of 1961.
Fifty-four years ago this month, NASA held a press conference in Washington, D.C. to introduce the seven men selected to be Project Mercury Astronauts. They would become known as the Mercury Seven or Original Seven.
Project Mercury was America’s first manned spaceflight program. The overall objective of Project Mercury was very simple: place a manned spacecraft in Earth orbit and bring both man and machine safely back home. Project Mercury ran from 1959 to 1963.
The men who would ultimately become Mercury Astronauts were among a group of 508 military test pilots originally considered by NASA for the new role of astronaut. The group of 508 candidates was then pared to 110, then 69 and finally to 32. These 32 volunteers were then subjected to exhaustive medical and psychological testing.
A total of 18 men were still under consideration for the astronaut role at the conclusion of the demanding test period. Now came the hard part for NASA. Each of the 18 finalists was truly outstanding and would be a worthy finalist. But there were only 7 spots on the team.
On Thursday, 09 April 1959, NASA publicly introduced the Mercury Seven in a special press conference held for this purpose at the Dolley Madison House in Washington, D.C. The men introduced to our nation that day will forever hold the distinction of being the first group of American astronauts. Presented in the order in which they flew, the Mercury Seven were:
Alan Bartlett Shepard Jr., United States Navy. Shepard flew the first Mercury sub-orbital mission (MR-3) on Friday, 05 May 1961. He was also the only Mercury astronaut to walk on the Moon. Shepherd did so as Commander of Apollo 14 (AS-509) in February 1971. Alan Shepard succumbed to leukemia on 21 July 1998 at the age of 74.
Vigil Ivan (“Gus”) Grissom, United States Air Force. Grissom flew the second Mercury sub-orbital mission (MR-4) on Friday, 21 July 1961. He was also Commander of the first Gemini mission (GT-3) in March 1965. Gus Grissom might very well have been the first man to walk on the Moon. But he lost his life in the Apollo 1 Fire, along with Astronauts Edward H. White II and Roger B. Chaffee, on Friday, 27 January 1967. Gus Grissom was 40 at the time of his death.
John Herschel Glenn Jr., United States Marines. Glenn was the first American to orbit the Earth (MA-6) on Thursday, 22 February 1962. He was also the only Mercury Astronaut to fly a Space Shuttle mission. He did so as a member of the STS-95 crew in October of 1998. Glenn was 77 at the time and still holds the distinction of being the oldest person to fly in space. John Glenn will be 92 in July 2013.
Malcolm Scott Carpenter, United States Navy. Carpenter became the second American to orbit the Earth (MA-7) on Thursday, 24 May 1962. This was Carpenter’s only mission in space. He subsequently turned his attention to under-sea exploration and was an aquanaut on the United States Navy SEALAB II project. Scott Carpenter will be 88 in May 2013.
Walter Marty Schirra Jr., United States Navy. Schirra became the third American to orbit the Earth (MA-8) on Wednesday, 03 October 1962. He later served as Commander of Gemini 6A (GT-6) in December 1965 and Apollo 7 (AS-205) in October 1968. Schirra was the only Mercury Astronaut to fly Mercury, Gemini and Apollo orbital spaceflight missions. Wally Schirra suffered a heart attack in May 2007 and passed away at the age of 84.
Leroy Gordon Cooper Jr., United States Air Force. Cooper became the fourth American to orbit the Earth (MA-9) on Wednesday, 15 May 1963. In doing so, he flew the last and longest Mercury mission (22 orbits, 34 hours). Cooper was also Commander of Gemini 5 (GT-5), the first long-duration Gemini mission, in August 1965. Gordo Cooper died from heart failure in October 2004 at the age of 77.
Donald Kent Slayton, United States Air Force. Slayton was the only Mercury Astronaut to not fly a Mercury mission when he was grounded for heart arrythemia in 1962. He subsequently served many years on Gemini and Apollo as head of astronaut selection. He finally got his chance for spaceflight in July 1975 as a crew member of the Apollo-Soyuz mission (ASTP). Deke Slayton died from brain cancer in June of 1993 at the age of 69.
History records that the Mercury Seven was the only group of NASA astronauts that had a member who flew each of America’s manned spacecraft (i.e, Mercury, Gemini, Apollo and Shuttle). Though just men and imperfect mortals, we salute each of them for their genuinely heroic deeds and unique contributions made to the advancement of American manned spaceflight.
Forty-nine years ago this month, the first of two NASA Project FIRE flights to acquire aerodynamic heating flight data on a subscale Apollo reentry vehicle was successfully flown. The mission provided vital aerothermodynamics data needed by the Apollo Program to evaluate heatshield materials and communications blackout phemomena for superorbital reentry of the Apollo Command Module.
The rapid advancement of manned space exploration in the 1960’s accentuated the need for defining the reentry heating environment at velocities exceeding the earth’s escape velocity. The primary objective of Project FIRE (Flight Investigation of the Reentry Environment) was to obtain convective and radiative aerodynamic heating data for a subscale reentry vehicle representative of the Apollo Command Module.
The Project FIRE concept involved the use of an Atlas D launch vehicle to loft the FIRE spacecraft into a suborbital flight path. During the post-apogee leg of this trajectory, an Antares II solid-fuel upper stage fired and drove the payload to maximum velocity. Instruments within the FIRE spacecraft measured and radioed data to the ground all the way to splash. There was no attempt to recover the payload.
The heating pulse for a FIRE reentry lasted about 40 seconds. However, a single calorimeter could not survive the entire entry heating period. As a solution to this problem, NASA engineers developed an innovative, but complex, 6-layer heat shield to measure the convective and radiative heat flux rates throughout the heating pulse.
The first, third and fifth layers of the FIRE forebody heat shield were made from beryllium and instrumented with thermocouples to obtain reentry temperature-time histories. The second, fourth and sixth layers consisted of phenolic asbestos thermal protection material. The first two of these latter layers were jettisoned at appropriate times during the entry heating pulse to expose a fresh calorimeter to a clean environment.
Radiometers measured total radiant heat flux through quartz windows mounted in each forebody layer. One each was located in the stagnation region and near corner of the front face of the base heat shield. The short life of these radiometer quartz windows limited acquisition of radiant heat flux data to three brief periods during the heating pulse.
On Tuesday, 14 April 1964, an Atlas D launch vehicle carrying the FIRE 1 spacecraft lifted-off from Cape Canaveral’s LC-12 at 21:42:25 UTC. A ballistic trajectory was flown down the Eastern Test Range (ETR). The maximum velocity and flight path angle achieved during the mission was 37,790 feet per second and -14.5 degrees, respectively. Payload impact occurred in the South Atlantic Ocean near Ascension Island. Total flight time from launch to splash was on the order of 32 minutes.
From a trajectory and sequence-of-events standpoint, FIRE 1 was a complete susccess, since the vehicle performance and timed events were well within prescribed limits. However, a faulty telemetry antenna and unexpectedly large coning motions of the FIRE spacecraft complicated data acquisition and interpretation.
Maximum flight-measured heating rate on the FIRE spacecraft forebody was 1,003 BTU’s per square foot per second, which agreed well with ground test and theory. Incredibly, the spacecraft exterior reached an estimated temperature of 20,000 degrees Fahrenheit; hotter than the outer surface of the Sun.
