Fifty-one years ago this week, the United States successfully orbited the world’s first active-repeater communications satellite. Known as Telstar 1, the satellite successfully relayed through space the first television pictures, telephone calls, fax images and provided the first live transatlantic television transmission.
Telstar was a development of the Bell Telephone Laboratories for the American Telephone and Telegraph (AT&T) Company. The concept involved orbiting of a satellite that could receive, amplify and retransmit electromagnetic signals around the globe.
The Telstar satellite was spherical in shape, had a diameter of 34.5 inches, and weighed about 170 lbs. Its external surface was covered with solar cells for electrical power generation. Telstar 1 was equipped with a single transponder and an externally located antenna array.
On Tuesday, 10 July 1962, Telstar 1 was launched into space aboard a Thor Delta launch vehicle. Lift-off from Cape Canaveral’s LC-17B came at 08:35 UTC. The satellite was successfully placed into a highly elliptical 3,046 nm x 510 nm orbit with an inclination of 45 degrees and a period of 157.8 minutes.
Telstar 1’s non-geosynchronous orbit limited its availability for transatlantic signals to about 20 minutes during each orbital pass. The power of the satellite’s transponder was quite low. To compensate, ground station antennas had to be very large. These units measured 177 feet in length and weighed around 750,000 lbs.
Once in orbit, Telstar 1 went right to work. On Wednesday, 11 July 1962, the satellite successfully relayed its first television signals in a transmission that originated in the United States. Specifically, images of the American flag were relayed to a ground station in France. While image quality was crude by today’s standards, Old Glory still looked pretty good in this first broadcast.
Telstar 1 made its inaugural public transatlantic broadcast on Monday, 23 July 1962. This historic broadcast featured the Statue of Liberty, the Eiffel Tower, remarks by President John F. Kennedy, excerpts from a baseball game between the Philadelphia Phillies and the Chicago Cubs, images of the American flag waving in the breeze, and pictures of Yves Montand, a then-popular French singer.
Telstar 1 transmitted more than 400 telephone, telegraph, fax and television transmissions during a rather abbreviated operational career. In November 1962, Telstar 1’s onboard electronics malfunctioned due to the harsh radiation environment encountered during repeated passage through the Van Allen Radiation Belts. Residual space-borne radiation from recent U.S. and Soviet nuclear weapons testing in space also contributed to the satellite’s demise.
Telstar 1 ushered in a new era in global communications. Its revolutionary technology profoundly changed life on earth in that global connectivity became more immediate and intimate. Telstar also spawned a new industry that has evolved into today’s massive global telecommunications market. Not too bad for a little ball filled with transistors, broadcasting with a weak transponder and orbiting high in the radiation-drenched heavens.
Fifty-one years ago this month, USAF Major Robert M. White flew the North American X-15 hypersonic research aircraft to a record altitude of 314,750 feet (51.8 nautical miles). In doing so, he became the first X-15 pilot to be awarded USAF Astronaut Wings.
The North American X-15 was the first manned hypersonic aircraft. It was designed, engineered, constructed and first flown in the 1950′s. As originally conceived, the X-15 was designed to reach 4,000 mph (Mach 6) and 250,000 feet. Before its flight test career was over, the type would meet and exceed both performance goals.
North American built a trio of X-15 airframes; Ship No. 1 (S/N 56-6670), Ship No. 2 (56-6671) and Ship No. 3 (56-6672). The X-15 measured 50 feet in length, had a wing span of 22 feet and a GTOW of 33,000 lbs. Ship No. 2 would later be modified to the X-15A-2 enhanced performance configuration. The X-15A-2 had a length of 52.5 feet and a GTOW of around 56,000 lbs.
The Reaction Motors XLR-99 rocket engine powered the X-15. The small, but mighty XLR-99 generated 57,000 pounds of sea level thrust at full-throttle. It weighed only 910 pounds. The XLR-99 used anhydrous ammonia and LOX as propellants. Burn time varied between 83 seconds for the stock X-15 and about 150 seconds for the X-15A-2.
The X-15 was carried to drop conditions (typically Mach 0.8 at 42,000 feet) by a B-52 mothership. A pair of aircraft were used for this purpose; a B-52A (S/N 52-003) and a B-52B (S/N 52-008). Once dropped from the mothership, the X-15 pilot lit the XLR-99 to accelerate the aircraft. The X-15A-2 also carried a pair of drop tanks which provided propellants for a longer burn time than was possible with the stock X-15 flight.
The X-15 employed both aerodynamic and reaction flight controls. The latter were required to maintain vehicle attitude in space-equivalent flight. The X-15 pilot wore a full-pressure suit in consequence of the aircraft’s extreme altitude capability. The typical X-15 drop-to-landing flight duration was on the order of 10 minutes. All X-15 landings were performed deadstick.
On Tuesday, 17 July 1962, Bob White flew his 15th X-15 mission. The X-15 and White had already become the first aircraft-pilot duo to hit Mach 4, 5 and 6. On this particular day, White was at the controls of X-15 Ship No. 3. It was the 62nd flight research mission of the X-15 Program with a target maximum altitude of 282,000 feet.
At 09:31:10 UTC, X-15 Ship No. 3 was launched from the B-52B mothership commanded by USAF Captain Jack Allavie. White lit the XLR-99 and pulled into a steep climb. His hypersonic steed rapidly gained altitude. Burnout of the XLR-99 occurred 82 seconds after ignition; 2.0 seconds longer than planned. At this point, White was traveling at 3,832 mph or Mach 5.45. Following an uneventful climb to apogee and a expertly-flown reentry, White touched-down safely on Rogers Dry Lake at 09:41:30 UTC.
The extra impulse provided by the longer-than-planned burn of the XLR-99 rocket engine drove White’s X-15 more than 32,000 feet higher than planned. The resulting apogee of 314,750 feet established a still-standing FAI world altitude record for piloted aircraft. The occasion also marked the first time that the X-15 flew higher than 300,000 feet. For flying beyond 50 statute miles (264,000 feet), Bob White received USAF Astronaut Wings; the first X-15 pilot to be awarded such.
Bob White piloted the X-15 a total of sixteen (16) times. He was one (1) of only twelve (12) men to fly the aircraft. White left X-15 Program and Edwards AFB in 1963. He went on to serve his country in numerous capacities as a member of the Air Force including flying 70 combat missions in Viet Nam. He returned to Edwards AFB as AFFTC Commander in August of 1970.
Major General Robert M. White retired from the United States Air Force in 1981. During his period of military service, he received numerous decorations and awards including the Air Force Cross, Distinguished Service Medal, Silver Star with three oak leaf clusters, Legion of Merit, Distinguished Flying Cross with four oak leaf clusters, Bronze Star Medal, and Air Medal with 16 oak leaf clusters.
Bob White was a true American hero. He was one of those heroes who neither sought nor received much notoreity for his accomplishments. He served his country and the aviation profession well. Bob White’s final flight occurred on Wednesday, 17 March 2010. He was 85 years of age.
Fifty-two years ago this week, the United States Navy successfully orbited the Transit 4A navigation satellite which carried the SNAP-3A Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (RTG). This historic mission marked the first time that an RTG was used as a spacecraft power source.
Transit was the first operational satellite navigation system. More formally known as the Navy NAVSAT (Navigation Satellite) System, Transit provided accurate global position data in support of naval worldwide sea operations. The navigation of submarines and surface ships was greatly aided by Transit-provided data as were sundry hydrographic and geodetic surveying programs.
Transit was developed for the Navy by the Applied Physics Laboratory of the Johns Hopkins University (JHU/APL). Work began in 1958 and launch of the first prototype Transit satellite, Transit 1A, took place in September 1959. A number of Transit satellite launches took place over the next 5 years with the system going operational in 1964.
Transit satellites provided position data that was accurate to within about 3 feet. The system revolutionized global navigation and was ultimately used by an untold number of ships and boats. Transit navigational operations ceased in 1996 with the advent of the Global Positioning System (GPS). One of the great benefits of GPS is that position data are provided continuously whereas Transit provided discrete data about once an hour.
Transit 4A was unique in that an experimental Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (RTG) was carried onboard the spacecraft. An RTG coverts the heat generated by the natural decay of a radioisotope fuel into electricity. This device is especially useful for power generation applications where solar arrays are either impractical or inadequate. An example application would be a long duration mission in deep space.
The 3-watt RTG carried onboard Transit 4A was officially known as the Systems For Nuclear Auxiliary Power (SNAP-3). Being experimental in nature, it only provided power to instrumentation and a pair of Transit 4A’s quartet of radio transmitters. Later versions would provide power for all spacecraft systems.
The Transit 4A satellite was cylindrical in shape, measuring 43 inches in diameter and 31 inches in height. The spacecraft weighed 174 lbs. The majority of its external surface was covered with solar cells that charged nickel-cadmium batteries.
On Thursday, 29 June 1961, Transit 4A was launched from Cape Canaveral’s LC-17B at 04:22 UTC. The Thor Ablestar 315 launch vehicle successfully placed Transit 4A into a 596-nm x 515-nm earth orbit. Two other satellites (GRAB and Injun) were also orbited on this mission. They separated from Transit 4A, but not from each other. GRAB 3 had a SIGINT mission. Injun was a USN satellite investigating radiation in Earth’s magnetosphere.
Transit 4A became the longest continuous broadcasting spacecraft in 1966. It continued to hold that distinction through 1971; the type’s 10th anniversary in space. At that point, the satellite had traveled more than 1.7 billion miles in space and flown around the Earth more than 55,000 times.
By the end of 1996, the Transit satellites were no longer utilized for navigation purposes and were superseded by the Navstar Global Positioning System (GPS). However, Transit satellite systems were still operating well and the spacecraft continued to transmit valuable data from orbit. The Navy renamed the Transit Satellite System as the Navy Ionospheric Monitoring Systems (NIMS).
The RTG technology pioneered on the Transit 4A mission matured significantly over the next five decades. During that time, RTG’s provided a safe, reliable, and maintenance-free means for generating spacecraft thermal and electrical power. Indeed, RTG’s have proven pivotal to the success of numerous manned and unmanned space missions including those associated with the Apollo, Viking, Pioneer, Voyager, Galileo, Ulysses, and Cassini Programs.
Forty-seven years ago this week, USAF’s Space and Missile Systems Organization (SAMSO) successfully orbited an octet of satellites on the first mission of the Initial Defense Communication Satellite Program (IDCSP). This feat marked the beginning of America’s first operational geosynchronous orbital communications system.
The Initial Defense Communications Satellite Program (IDCSP) was the world’s first military satellite communications system. It consisted of clusters of small, polygonal satellites deployed in near-geosynchronous earth orbit. IDCSP satellites transmitted both voice and photographic data vital to U.S. military commanders.
Each IDCSP satellite external configuration was a 26 sided polygon measuring 34-inches in diameter. With a mass of roughly 100 lbs, the communication satellite was spin-stabilized and its external surface was almost completely covered with solar cells. With the onus on simplicity, the type employed neither internal storage batteries nor an active attitude control system.
During a typical IDCSP mission, up to eight (8) satellites were placed into near-geosynchronous earth orbit by a single launch vehicle. Each satellite was dispensed individually. Since their orbits were not quite synchronous, IDCSP satellites drifted west to east up to 30 degrees per day. This feature helped ensure that at least one satellite was always visible to a ground station in the event that an adjacent IDCSP satellite became non-op.
On Thursday, 16 June 16 1966, an USAF Titan IIIC launch vehicle lifted-off from Cape Canaveral’s LC-41 at 1400 UTC. The multi-staged booster successfully placed seven (7) IDCSP satellites and a single gravity-gradient experimental satellite into equatorial orbit at an altitude of approximately 18,354 nm. Each of the constituent satellites functioned well and successfully passed a series of on-orbit preliminary tests. The IDCSP system then declared “operational” in short order.
Between June of 1966 and June of 1968, a total of twenty-six (26) IDCSP satellites were orbited by USAF Titan IIIC launch vehicles. A quartet of launches was required to accomplish such. While the IDCSP system was experimental in nature, it in fact provided the United States with a viable space-based, global communication network for over a decade.
IDCSP satellites transmitted reconn photographs and other intelligence data throughout the Vietnam War. At the point of IDCSP initial operating capability (IOC), the system was redesignated as the Defense Satellite Communications System I (DSCS I). Enhanced-capability variants, DSCS II and DSCS III, came in succeeding years (the later serving into the 21st century).
Forty-eight years ago this month, Astronaut Edward H. White II became the first American to perform what in NASA parlance is referred to as an Extra Vehicular Activity (EVA). In everyday terms; a space walk.
White, Mission Commander James A. McDivitt and their Gemini IV spacecraft were launched into low Earth orbit by a two-stage Titan II launch vehicle from LC-19 at Cape Canaveral Air Force Station, Florida. The mission clock started at 15:15:59 UTC on Thursday, 03 June 1965.
On the third orbit, less than five hours after launch, White opened the Gemini IV starboard hatch. He stood in his seat and mounted a camera to capture his historic space stroll. He then cast-off from Gemini IV and became a human satellite.
White was tethered to Gemini IV via a 15-foot umbilical that provided oxygen and communications to his EVA suit. A gold-plated visor on his helmet protected his eyes from the searing glare of the sun. The space-walking astronaut was also outfitted with a hand-held maneuvering unit that used compressed oxygen to power its small thrusters. And, like any good tourist, he also took along a camera.
Ed White had the time of his all-too-brief life in the 22 minutes that he walked in space. The sight of the earth, the spacecraft, the sun, the vastness of space, the freedom of movement all combined to make him exclaim at one point, “I feel like a million dollars!”.
Presently, it was time to get back into the spacecraft. But, couldn’t he just stay outside a little longer? NASA Mission Control and Commander McDivitt were firm. It was time to get back in; now! He grudgingly complied with the request/order, plaintively saying: “It’s the saddest moment of my life!”
As Ed White got back into his seat, he and McDivitt struggled to lock the starboard hatch. Both men were exhausted, but ebullient as they mused about the successful completion of America’s first space walk.
Gemini IV would eventually orbit the Earth 62 times before splashing-down in the Atlantic Ocean at 17:12:11 GMT on Sunday, 07 June 1965. The 4-day mission was another milestone in America’s quest for the moon.
The mission was over and yet Ed White was still a little tired. But then, that was really quite easy to understand. In the time that he was working outside the spacecraft, Gemini IV had traveled almost a third of the way around the Earth.
Now, that’s a long walk!
Fifty-six years ago this month, USAF Captain Joseph W. Kittinger successfully completed the first Manhigh aero medical research balloon mission. During his 6.5-hour flight, Kittinger reached an altitude of 95,200 feet above mean sea level.
Project Manhigh was a United States Air Force biomedical research program that investigated the human factors of spaceflight by taking men into a near-space environment. Preparations for the trio of Manhigh flights began in 1955. The experience and data gleaned from Manhigh were instrumental to the success of the nation’s early manned spaceflight effort.
The Manhigh target altitude was approximately 100,000 feet above sea level. A helium-filled polyethylene balloon, just 0.0015-inches thick and inflatable to a maximum volume of over 3-million cubic feet, carried the Manhigh gondola into the stratosphere. At float altitude, this balloon expanded to a diameter of about 200 feet.
The Manhigh gondola was a hemispherically-capped cylinder that measured 3-feet in diameter and 8-feet in length. It was attached to the transporting balloon via a 40-foot diameter recovery parachute. Although compact, the gondola was amply provisioned with the necessities of flight including life support, power and communication systems. It also included expendable ballast for use in controlling the altitude of the Manhigh balloon.
The Manhigh test pilot wore a T-1 partial pressure suit during the Manhigh mission. This would protect him in the event that the gondola cabin lost pressure at extreme altitude. The pilot was hooked-up to a variety of sensors which transmitted his biomedical information to the ground throughout the flight. This allowed medicos on the ground to keep a constant tab on the pilot’s physical status.
The flight of Manhigh I took place on Sunday, 02 June 1957 with USAF Captain Joseph W. Kittinger as pilot. The massive balloon carrying Kittinger and his gondola was released at 11:23 UTC from Fleming Field Airport, South Saint Paul, Minnesota. In less than 2 hours, Kittinger’s balloon reached its design float altitude of 95,200 feet.
Radio communication problems complicated the Manhigh I mission. While Kittinger could hear the ground, the ground could not hear him. However, the resourceful pilot managed to work around this issue by communicating with the ground via Morse code.
Though balloon, gondola and pilot were functioning quite well, the Manhigh I mission had to be cut short due to rapid depletion of the gondala’s oxygen supply. Post-flight investigation revealed that this anomaly was caused by accidental crossing of the oxygen supply and vent lines prior to the flight.
Kittinger made a safe and uneventful landing near Indian Creek, Minnesota; located roughly 60 nm southeast of the launch site. The recovery crew was quick to the scene and extracted the plucky pilot from the sealed balloon gondola which had fallen over on its side. The official mission elapsed time was 6 hours and 32 minutes.
The flight of Manhigh I was a significant technical accomplishment that materially contributed to the advancement of manned spaceflight. Indeed, a TIME Magazine article, entitled “Prelude to Space” and dated 17 June 1957, captured the essence of the achievement. A man had been subjected to space-equivalent physiological conditions for a protracted period, had functioned well in that environment, and then returned safely to earth without ill effect.
For his significant efforts during the Manhigh I mission, Captain Joseph W. Kittinger received the USAF Distinguished Flying Cross.
Fifty-seven years ago this week, the United States Navy successfully conducted the first flight test of the Chance Vought Regulus II cruise missile. This initial test departed from and recovered to Rogers Dry Lake at Edwards Air Force Base, California.
The Regulus II was designed as the supersonic follow-on to the Navy’s Regulus I ship-launched cruise missile. Utilizing an inertial reference system, the Regulus II was autonomously guided to the target. This represented a great improvement over Regulus I which employed a more primitive radio command guidance system.
Like its Regulus I forebear, Regulus II featured an airplane-like external airframe configuration and cruised under turbojet power. The vehicle was rocket-launched to the turbojet takeover speed (300 knots) using the Zero-Length Launch (ZLL) concept. The single rocket booster generated 115,000 lbs of thrust for 4 seconds and was jettisoned following burnout.
The Regulus II missile engineering and development effort saw the missile built in three (3) airframe blocks. The flight test version was designated as XRSSM-N-9 and included seven (7) airframes (GM-2001 to GM-2007). The fleet training variant was designated as XRSSM-N-9A, of which twenty-nine (29) were built (GM-2008 to GM-2036).
The Regulus II tactical missile, designated XSSM-N-9, included thirty-eight (38) airframes (GM-3001 to GM-3038). It measured 67 feet in length and featured a wingspan of 20.75 feet. Gross Take-Off Weight (GTOW) and empty weight were 21,300 lbs and 11,690 lbs, respectively. Power was provided by a General Electric J79 afterburing turbojet.
As originally designed, Regulus II was intended to cruise 1,000 nm at Mach 0.94 and an altitude of 32,000 feet. This range fell to 600 nm at a cruise altitude of 5,000 feet. For a supersonic cruise at Mach 2 and 65,000 feet, the vehicle had design range of 635 nm.
Initial flight testing of the Regulus II missile did not use the rocket booster. Rather, the vehicle became airborne via a normal runway take-off. The missile was remotely controlled by a pilot flying alongside in a two-place control aircraft. In this case, the aircraft was a TV-2D; a modified version of the Lockheed T-33. The front-seater flew the Regulus II while the back-seater flew the control airplane. Chase support was provided by Douglas F4D Skyray and Vought F8U Crusader aircraft.
Airframe GM-2001 made the first test flight of a Regulus II vehicle at Edwards Air Force Base, California on Tuesday, 29 May 1956. The first XRSSM-N-9 departed Rogers Dry Lake at 14:11 UTC following a take-off roll of slightly over 12,000 feet. The missile quickly accelerated to 356 knots as it climbed to an altitude of nearly 11,000 feet. Amazingly, all major missile systems performed nominally during the nearly 33-minute test hop and GM-2001 landed safely back on the dry lake bed.
The Navy would go on to conduct forty-seven (47) more Regulus II flight tests through November 1958. These tests were successful in the main and the Regulus II system performed well overall. However, the emergence of the contemporaneous and superior UGM-27 Polaris Submarine-Launched Ballistic Missile (SLBM) rendered the Regulus II missile obsolete. As a result, the Navy cancelled the Regulus II Program in December 1958.
Forty-eight years ago this month, the USAF/Lockheed YF-12A set a bevy of world speed and altitude peformance records. A pair of aircraft and a team of five USAF aircrew flew these missions which originated out of Edwards Air Force Base, California.
The YF-12A was the interceptor variant of the vaunted Lockheed A-12 Mach 3+ aircraft. Armed with a quartet of Hughes AIM-47A air-to-air missiles, the YF-12A’s mission would be to intercept and destroy incoming Soviet bombers. Lockheed proposed the A-12 variant as a cost-effective replacement for the defunct North American XF-108 Rapier.
The YF-12A differed from the A-12 in that a second crew station was added for the AIM-47A Weapons Systems Officer (WSO). The WSO operated the powerful Hughes AN/ASG-18 fire control radar which had a range on the order of 500 miles. The YF-12A’s forebody chines were truncated back of the axisymmetric nose to accommodate the radar system. Infrared (IR) sensors were installed on the leading edges of the shortened chines.
The Hughes AIM-47A missile measured 12.5 feet in length and 13.5 inches in diameter. Maximum range of the 800-pound missile was in excess of 100 miles. While the type’s intended maximum Mach number was 6, propulsion system development problems limited the demonstrated maximum Mach number to 4. About eighty (80) AIM-47A missiles were produced. Seven (7) of these rounds were test fired in flight. All but one (1) was successful.
Lockheed converted a trio of A-12 aircraft to the YF-12A configuration. The YF-12A aircraft were assigned serial numbers 60-6934 (Ship 1), 60-6935 (Ship 2) and 60-6936 (Ship 3). Ship 1 made the maiden YF-12A flight from Groom Lake, Nevada on Wednesday, 07 August 1963 with James D. Eastham at the controls.
On Saturday, 01 May 1965, YF-12A aircraft 60-6934 and 60-6936 were flown by a quintet of USAF aircrew in an impressive demonstration of the interceptor’s altitude and speed performance. These missions were conducted by the Air Force Flight Test Center (AFFTC) at Edwards Air Force Base, California. Specifically, the following FAI-certified Class C Group III absolute performance records were established on that day:
Sustained Altitude (Absolute): 80,258 feet
Aircraft: YF-12A, Ship 1 (Serial Number 60-6934)
Aircrew: Col Robert L. Stephens/Lt Col Daniel Andre
15/25 km Closed-Circuit (Absolute): 2,070.102 mph
Aircraft: YF-12A, Ship 3 (Serial Number 60-6936)
Aircrew: Col Robert L. Stephens/Lt Col Daniel Andre
500 km Closed-Circuit (Class C): 1,643.042 mph
Aircraft: YF-12A, Ship 3 (Serial Number 60-6936)
Aircrew: Maj Walter F. Daniel/Maj Noel T. Warner
1,000 km Closed-Circuit, No Payload: 1,688.891 mph
Aircraft: YF-12A, Ship 3 (Serial Number 60-6936)
Aircrew: Maj Walter F. Daniel/Capt James P. Cooney
1,000 km Closed-Circuit, 1,000 kg Load (Absolute): 1,688.891 mph
Aircraft: YF-12A, Ship 3 (Serial Number 60-6936)
Aircrew: Maj Walter F. Daniel/Capt James P. Cooney
1,000 km Closed-Circuit, 2,000 kg Load (Class C): 1,688.891 mph
Aircraft: YF-12A, Ship 3 (Serial Number 60-6936)
Aircrew: Maj Walter F. Daniel/Capt James P. Cooney
USAF liked the YF-12A’s demonstrated performance capabilities. Thus, on Friday, 14 May 1965, the service ordered ninety-three (93) units of the production YF-12A aircraft known as the F-12B. Congress approved the order and allotted $90M to get production going. Unfortunately, United States Secretary of Defense Robert S. McNamara nixed the deal and cancelled the production of the F-12B.
Following the F-12B cancellation, YF-12A flight testing by USAF continued through 1969. One aircraft was lost along the way. On Thursday, 14 August 1966, Ship 1 was severely damaged in a landing incident at Edwards AFB and never flew again. Fortunately, the crew escaped with their lives.
In December of 1969, NASA initiated a flight research effort using YF-12A Ship 2 and Ship 3. Over the next ten (10) years a wealth of aerodynamic, aero heating, structural and propulsion flight research data were acquired using these unique high-speed assets. A great benefit in this regard was the type’s ability to sustain Mach 3+ flight conditions for periods up to 15 minutes per mission.
YF-12A Ship 3 was lost on Thursday, 24 June 1971 when an inflight fire started due to a failed fuel line in the right-hand J58 turbo-ramjet engine. The USAF crew of pilot Lt Col Ronald J. Layton and WSO Maj William A. Curtis attempted to recover the aircraft to Edwards AFB. However, the fire quickly spread and forced the crew to abandon the aircraft. They ejected safely and survived. Ship 3 was making its 67th flight of the NASA YF-12A flight research effort at the time of its demise.
Following Ship 3′s loss, Ship 2 flew the remainder of the NASA YF-12A high-speed flight research program. It registered a total of 146 missions in that capacity. On Wednesday, 07 November 1979, YF-12A Ship 2 departed Edwards AFB for its final destination; the USAF Musuem at Wright-Patterson AFB, Ohio. The USAF crew consisted of pilot Col James V. Sullivan and USAF Museum Director Richard Uppstrom as the guy in back (GIB).
The only YF-12A aircraft to survive the USAF and NASA flight programs was Ship 2. That aircraft (60-6935) is currently on display in the Research and Development Gallery at the United States Air Force National Museum in Dayton, Ohio. Also displayed there is the 1965 Thompson Trophy that was awarded to Col Robert L. Stephens and Lt Col Daniel Andre for their record-setting YF-12A flight of 2,070.102 mph.
Forty-nine years ago today, NASA successfully tested the Apollo Launch Escape System (LES) during a simulated abort of a boilerplate Apollo Command Module (CM). The mission was the second of six test shots aimed at demonstrating that the LES could safely abort the CM under critical ascent flight conditions.
The Apollo Launch Escape System (LES) was designed to provide a positive means of crew esacpe in the event of booster failure during the early stages of ascent. The LES incorporated a trio of solid rocket motors: the launch-escape motor, the tower-jettison motor, and the pitch-control motor. The primary and largest rocket motor of the three was the launch-escape motor which generated 155,000 lbs of thrust.
NASA’s Little Joe flight test program involved the abort testing of boilerplate Apollo Command Modules using Little Joe II launch vehicles. The purpose of the subject test series was to examine the performance of the Apollo CM and LES under highly stressing flight conditions. The Little Joe flights were flown out of White Sands Missile Range (WSMR) between November 1963 and January 1966.
The Apollo Little Joe flight test series consisted of a pair of Pad Abort (PA) tests and a quartet of ascent abort (AA) tests. Each PA mission involved flying a LES-CM combination to simulate an on-the-pad abort. Such would be the case, for instance, should a Saturn launch vehicle explode on the launch pad. The AA missions utilized Little Joe II launch vehicles to test the LES-CM at critical abort mode flight conditions.
Designated Abort Missions A-001 through A-004, the AA flight tests examined performance of the LES and CM under the following abort flight conditions: Transonic Abort (A-001), Maximum Dynamic Pressure Abort (A-002), Low-Altitude Abort (A-003) and Power-on Tumbling Boundary Abort (A-004).
The first of the AA missions (A-001) was launched from White Sands Missile Range, New Mexico at 12:59:59 UTC on Wednesday, 13 May 1964. At an altitude of 15,400 feet during the ascent, the Little Joe II was intentionally self-destructed. The LES fired as designed and propelled the Apollo CM boilerplate to 29,772 feet. At this point, the 3-phase (drogue, pilot and main) parachute recovery system deployed and soft-landed the CM at a sink rate of 26 feet/second. Total flight time from ignition to touchdown was 350 seconds.
Mission A-001 was entirely successful. The LES worked as advertised and the boilerplate Apollo CM test article survived the transonic abort test in good shape. The only anomaly noted was the collapse of one of the three main parachutes due to a broken riser. Since the Apollo CM was designed to land safely on only two main parachutes, the collapsed parachute anomaly was not considered an issue.
History records that the A-002, A-003 and A-004 abort missions were subsequently and successfully flown in December 1964, May 1965 and January 1966, respectively. Along with A-001, these missions helped qualify the Apollo LES and the CM earth landing system for manned missions. Post-flight analyses revealed that had these abort tests had been manned, the flight crew would have landed safely in all cases.
Forty-five years ago today, NASA Astronaut Neil A. Armstrong narrowly escaped with his life when he was forced to eject from the Lunar Landing Research Vehicle in which he was training. Armstrong punched-out only 200 feet above ground level and spent just 4 seconds in the silk before safely landing.
The Lunar Module (LM) was the vehicle used by Apollo astronauts to land on and depart from the lunar surface. This unique spacecraft consisted of separate descent and ascent rocket-powered stages. The powered descent phase was initiated at 50,000 feet AGL and continued all the way to landing. The powered ascent phase lasted from lunar lift-off to 60,000 feet AGL.
It was recognized early in the Apollo Program that landing a spacecraft on the lunar surface under vacuum conditions would be very challenging to say the least. To maximize their chances for doing so safely, Apollo astronauts would need piloting practice prior to a lunar landing mission. And they would need an earth-bound vehicle that flew like the LM to get that practice.
The Lunar Landing Research Vehicle (LLRV) was the answer to the above. The LLRV employed a turbojet engine that provided vertical thrust to cancel five-sixths of its weight since the gravity on the Moon is one-sixth that of Earth. The vehicle was also configured with dual lift rockets to provide vertical and horizontal motion. LLRV 3-axis attitude control was provided by a series of 16 small thrusters.
The LLRV was described by one historical NASA document as being “unconventional, contrary and ugly”. Known as the “Flying Bedstead”, the LLRV was designed for the specific purpose of simulating LM flight during the terminal phase of a lunar landing. The LLRV was not easy to fly in the “low and slow” flight regime in which it operated. The type was not eye-pleasing in the least.
A pair of LLRV’s were constructed by Bell Aerosystems and flight tested at what is now the NASA Dryden Flight Research Center starting in October 1964. These vehicles were subsequently shipped to Ellington Air Force Base in Texas by early 1967. A number of flight crew, including Neil Armstrong, began LLRV flight training shortly thereafter.
Neil Armstrong made his first LLRV flight on Monday, 27 March 1967 in LLRV No. 1. (This occurred two months after the horrific Apollo 1 Fire.) Armstrong continued flight training in the LLRV over the next year in preparation for what would ultimately be the first manned lunar landing attempt in July of 1969
On Monday, 06 May 1968, Armstrong was flying LLRV No. 1 when the vehicle began losing altitude as its lift rockets lost thrust. Using turbojet power, Armstrong was able to get the LLRV to climb. As he did so, the vehicle made an uncommanded pitch-up and roll over. The attitude control system was unresponsive. The pilot had no choice but to eject.
Neil Armstrong ejected from the LLRV at 200 feet AGL as LLRV No. 1 crashed to destruction. The pilot was subjected to an acceleration of 14 G’s as his rocket-powered, vertically-seeking ejection seat functioned as designed. Armstrong got a full chute, but made only a few swings in same before safely touching-down back on terra firma. His only injury was to his tongue, which he accidently bit at the moment of ejection seat rocket motor ignition.
A mishap investigation board attributed the LLRV mishap to a design deficiency that allowed the helium gas pressurant of the lift rocket and attitude control system fuel tanks to be be accidently depleted. Thus, propellants could not be delivered to the lift rockets and attitude control system thrusters.
Neil Armstrong and indeed all of the Apollo astronauts who landed on the Moon trained in improved variants of the LLRV known as the Lunar Landing Training Vehicle (LLTV). This training was absolutely crucial to the success of the half-dozen Apollo crews who landed on the Moon. Indeed, there was no other way to adequately simulate moon landings except by flying the LLTV.
